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New-age technologies are transforming how people learn, communicate, and interact with knowledge. With instant access to diverse knowledge, personalised Artificial Intelligence (AI)-powered learning tools and globally interconnected learners, traditional learning theories, such as behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism, struggle to explain effectively the complexities of modern digital learning environments.
Connectivism, proposed by George Siemens and further developed by Stephen Downes, addresses this gap by proposing an educational theory. In this theory, learning occurs through networks of connections among individuals, digital platforms, and their interaction with each other. This article explores the core ideas of connectivism, its relevance, applications, critiques, and how it is reshaping contemporary education and knowledge discourse.
Learning occurs through networks of connections among individuals, digital platforms, and their interaction with each other.
Connectivism and its Contributions
According to Siemens, connectivism is “a learning theory for the digital age”. While many thinkers hesitate to classify it as a full-fledged educational theory, preferring to view it as a framework or a school of thought, it provides at least five important contributions to understanding the role of technology and digital interactions in knowledge acquisition.
First, it contends that knowledge is fluid, with its validity and accuracy constantly changing as newer contributions of facts and opinions come in. This makes the learning process cyclical as it allows learners to adapt to new information and revisit and refine their existing beliefs based on new information.
Second, knowledge is distributed and stored across information networks in various formats, allowing learners to traverse networks through multiple knowledge domains. As they move across knowledge domains, converse and interact with one another, learners do not merely consume knowledge, but also create it actively.
Third, learning in the 21st century is continuous and lifelong. Connectivism, therefore, diminishes the role of educators and educational institutions and shifts control greatly to autonomous learners who find their own information. These self-directed learners create knowledge by engaging in networks away from the formal setting and learn based on their personal goals and interests, rather than institutional requirements.
Knowledge is distributed and stored across information networks in various formats, allowing learners to traverse networks through multiple knowledge domains.
Fourth, while in all its constituent theories learning is a brain-based, individual process, connectivism posits it not simply as an internal cognitive process but also as a dynamic interaction between learners and the digital, social, and organisational networks surrounding them. Thus, learning also exists outside the individual, as technology stores and deploys it.
Fifth, learning theories have disproportionately focused on only the learning process, often overlooking the value of what is being learnt. However, in a digitised, networked world, with ample and diverse knowledge, there is a need to evaluate the value or worthiness of learning something— a meta-skill that must be applied before learning itself begins. Accordingly, connectivism contends that learners must be able to identify, select, and critically evaluate the information they encounter to discern what is reliable, relevant, and of value.
With these important contributions, connectivism recognises the dynamic nature of knowledge and bridges the gap between formal and informal learning in today's world. It enables learners to construct their own learning paths by evaluating sources, discerning misinformation, and synthesising diverse viewpoints.
Application Areas of Connectivism
Over the past two decades, the focus in many areas of learning has shifted from content grasping to knowledge navigation, network formation, and dynamic learning. Connectivism has been widely applied across these multiple domains, transforming the way education, professional learning, and upskilling are structured. Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) embody connectivist principles by offering decentralised, networked learning. Higher education platforms like Coursera, edX, and Khan Academy allow learners to engage in peer discussions, open-access resources, and expert-led instruction.
Businesses integrate connectivist learning models in on-the-job training, knowledge-sharing platforms, and AI-driven learning modules to enhance workforce skills.
Online forums, virtual simulations, and collaborative research platforms in professional fields, like medical education, exemplify connectivist learning. Businesses integrate connectivist learning models in on-the-job training, knowledge-sharing platforms, and AI-driven learning modules to enhance workforce skills. Educators and professionals engage in networked learning communities where they collaborate through webinars, LinkedIn groups, and digital publications.
Schools also integrate digital classrooms with interactive technologies, project-based learning, and e-tools to help students build personal learning networks through blogs, wikis, and educational apps. Specific learning strategies, such as the flipped classroom—where students watch lectures online and use classroom time for group work and discussion—are influenced by the principles of Connectivism.
Criticism of Connectivism
Despite its growing relevance, connectivism has faced several critiques. Some thinkers argue that connectivism is more of a pedagogical model than a formal learning theory since it lacks extensive empirical validation. However, given its stress on social interaction and the learner’s role in creating knowledge, others feel it is an extension of constructivist principles rather than a distinct theory. Some also question whether the perspective is too dependent on technology and assumes equal access to digital tools, which may not be true for several groups and communities globally. Critics further argue that the theory overemphasises technology and social networks while overlooking the importance of other factors such as motivation and individual differences in learning styles. Structured guidance and mentorship from educators remain crucial, especially for younger learners.
Despite these criticisms, connectivism represents a paradigm shift in learning theories, addressing the challenges and opportunities presented by digital technology. Its perspectives on technology’s role, decentralised learning, and the dynamic nature of knowledge challenge the traditional frameworks that focus solely on individual cognition. While it may not yet be a differentiated, standalone theory, it undeniably enriches the discourse on modern education and digital learning environments.
Way Forward
Connectivism provides a forward-looking framework that aligns education with the needs of the 21st-century learner, fostering a flexible, dynamic, and interconnected learning ecosystem suited to an era of rapid change.
Connectivism must inform educational applications and assessment models that incorporate collaborative, competency-based evaluations reflecting dynamic learning in the real world, including the full spectrum of knowledge in networked environments.
As technology evolves, connectivism could further adapt and harness ways to understand and explain digital learning through emerging tools like AI, Virtual Reality (VR), and Augmented Reality (AR). However, the theory must expand its scope consistently and develop its prepositions more comprehensively. One key area of expansion should be explaining the evolving role of educators—from traditional instructors to facilitators, mentors, and network enablers. Another crucial aspect is addressing individual differences, including learners' backgrounds, prior knowledge, and motivation, and how these factors influence their engagement with content, navigation of digital networks, and self-directed/self-paced learning journeys.
Additionally, connectivism must inform educational applications and assessment models that incorporate collaborative, competency-based evaluations reflecting dynamic learning in the real world, including the full spectrum of knowledge in networked environments. Efforts should be made to bridge the digital divide, ensuring equitable access to technology-driven learning environments. By integrating these elements, connectivism can reshape education to reflect today’s learners' diverse needs and experiences.
Arpan Tulsyan is a Senior Fellow at the Centre for New Economic Diplomacy, Observer Research Foundation.
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